Beyond the Classroom: Using Title IX to Measure the Return to High School Sports
Penn collection
Degree type
Discipline
Subject
1990 Census of Population
5% Public Use Micro Sample (PUMS)
Analysis of education
Athletic participation
Athletics
College attendance
College attendance
Demographic Economics
Economics of Gender
Education
Educational attainment
Educational policy
Entitlements
Extra curricular activities
Family and Personal Law
Female athletic participation
Female labor force participation
Gender discrimination
Gender segregation
High school participation
High-skill occupations
Human capital
Labor force participation
Labor law
Labor market demographics
Labor productivity
Male-dominated occupations
National Center for Education Statistics
National Federation of State High School Associations
National High School Athletic Participation Survey
Non-labor discrimination
Occupation
Occupational choice
Professional labor markets
Professionals
Public policy
Schooling
Skills
Time allocation
Title IX Law (Education Amendments)
Civil Rights and Discrimination
Demography, Population, and Ecology
Economics
Education
Gender and Sexuality
Labor and Employment Law
Labor Economics
Law
Social and Behavioral Sciences
Sociology
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License
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Related resources
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Abstract
Between 1972 and 1978 U.S. high schools rapidly increased their female athletic participation rates—to approximately the same level as their male athletic participation rates—in order to comply with Title IX, a policy change that provides a unique quasi-experiment in female athletic participation. This paper examines the causal implications of this expansion in female sports participation by using variation in the level of boys’ athletic participation across states before Title IX to instrument for the change in girls’ athletic participation. Analysis of differences in outcomes across states in changes between pre- and post-cohorts reveals that a 10-percentage point rise in state-level female sports participation generates a 1 percentage point increase in female college attendance and a 1 to 2 percentage point rise in female labor force participation. Furthermore, greater opportunities to play sports leads to greater female participation in previously male-dominated occupations, particularly in high-skill occupations.