Cytokine Profiles and Oral Microbiome Shifts in HIV Youth with Persistent HPV Infection

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is a global health concern, with prevalence in people living with HIV (PLWH), particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Youth perinatally infected or exposed to HIV are vulnerable to persistent oral HPV infections, yet little is known about the interplay between their oral microbiome and immune responses. This study investigated the relationship between pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, oral microbiome composition, and HPV persistence in HIV-infected (HI), HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU), and HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU) Nigerian youth aged 10–14. Using plasma and saliva samples, cytokine profiling was performed using Milliplex assays, and microbial composition was assessed. Plasma fractalkine was the only cytokine significantly elevated in HIV-infected participants. Microbiome analyses revealed significant compositional shifts, with HI individuals enriched for Prevotella. In HPV-positive youth, Morococcus and Neisseria correlated with increased plasma levels of certain pro-inflammatory cytokines, while HPV-negative youth showed reduced Streptococcus and Lactococcus with specific cytokine profiles. These findings suggest that HIV-related dysbiosis and inflammatory outcomes may contribute to HPV persistence, showing the potential of oral microbiome and cytokines as non-invasive biomarkers for early detection and intervention in vulnerable populations.