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Publication Changes in HIV/AIDS Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviors in Malawi(2014-01-01) Fedor, TheresaThe three chapters of this dissertation collectively assess how HIV/AIDS knowledge, attitudes are behaviors are changing in Malawi. The first chapter assesses how married individuals use knowledge of HIV status to make behavioral changes to reduce HIV risk or make decisions about divorce. Instrumental variable models controlling for selection into HIV testing are estimated using data from the Malawi Longitudinal Study of Families and Health (MLSFH). Results indicate that knowledge of HIV status does not affect chances of divorce but does reduce the number of reported sexual partners among HIV-positive respondents, and increases reported condom use with spouses for both HIV-negative and HIV-positive respondents. The goals of the second and third chapters are to dig beneath behavior itself and look at how potential behavioral changes are motivated, as well as how basic HIV knowledge has changed. Chapter 2 examines ways that HIV prevention efforts may have changed beliefs and attitudes towards HIV risk and HIV prevention, in particular attitudes towards a woman's right to protect against HIV risk. Using MLSFH data, I compare participants and non-participants in a program providing extensive HIV counseling and testing. Results suggest that participants are more likely to believe that women have the right to take steps to protect themselves from HIV risk, are less likely to be extremely worried about HIV infection, and are more likely to think condom use is an acceptable means of protection against HIV. Chapter 3 explores how individuals update knowledge of HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention over time in Malawi. HIV knowledge uptake could potentially be different according to an individual's age, the time frame in which an individual was born, or could be changing predominately over time for all individuals (age, period or cohort). Using Demographic and Health Surveys Data for Malawi in cross-classified random effect age-period-cohort models, I find that period effects dominate over cohort or age effects, meaning that knowledge of effective HIV prevention tactics has increased most strongly over time, net of age and birth cohort effects.Publication The Economic Lives of Black Immigrants: An Analysis of Wages, Homeownership, and Locational Attainment in the United States(2013-01-01) Tesfai, RebbecaBlack immigrants are a quickly growing population who experience the effects of the intersection of race and national origin. Despite their significance, black immigrants are often overlooked because they are a small population compared to other immigrants. This dissertation consists of three separate studies sharing the objective of investigating black immigrant incorporation into the United States. Each chapter uses U.S. census and American Community Survey data to investigate an aspect of black immigrants' wage and housing outcomes. Chapter one analyzes wage differences among blacks using linear regression models, which also control for selection into full-time employment. Chapter two also uses regression models to determine likelihood of homeownership and the values of homes once a household selects into homeownership. Chapter three measures the racial and socioeconomic segregation of black immigrants with the locational attainment model. I find in chapter 1 that, contrary to previous research, all black immigrants earn significantly lower wages than U.S.-born blacks. Yet, in chapter two I find that Caribbean immigrants are significantly more likely than U.S.-born blacks to own their homes and their homes are of equivalent or higher value than even U.S.-born whites at the national level. African-born blacks' homeownership and house value increases over time, with house values reaching the levels of U.S.-born whites'. The high home values of foreign-born blacks indicate that black immigrants are able to gain access to neighborhoods that U.S.-born blacks are not. This is confirmed in chapter 3; I find that foreign-born blacks are less segregated from U.S.-born whites than U.S.-born blacks and live in neighborhoods where they are more likely to be exposed to those with at least a college degree or with an income to poverty ratio of three or more. In some metropolitan areas foreign-born blacks are more likely to live in these areas than even U.S.-born whites.Publication Essays on Family Structure and Marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa(2013-01-01) Chae, SophiaThe three essays in this dissertation examine issues related to family structure and marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa. The first two essays explore how family structures influence children's outcomes. The third essay focuses on the data quality of marriage histories collected in a longitudinal survey. The first essay examines whether the timing and type of orphanhood is associated with early sexual debut and early marriage among 12-19-year-old adolescents in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Malawi, and Uganda. I also test whether education mediates orphans' risk of early sexual initiation and early marriage. Discrete-time event history models suggest that female double orphans, regardless of timing of orphanhood, have greater odds of early sexual debut than do nonorphans. Education explains little of their increased risk. In contrast, male orphans of any type reveal no increased vulnerability to early sexual debut. Uganda is the only country where female orphans, specifically double orphans and those who are paternal orphans before age 10, have greater odds of early marriage, with education accounting for a small portion of the risk. The second essay investigates the relationship between parental divorce and children's schooling in rural Malawi. Child fixed effects regression models are used to control for unobserved heterogeneity that could affect both parental divorce and children's schooling. Results suggest that children from divorced marriages have completed, on average, fewer grades of schooling than children from intact marriages. No differences in current school enrollment and schooling gap (among children currently in school) are found by parents' marriage status. The third essay measures the reliability of marriage histories collected in two waves of the Malawi Longitudinal Study of Families and Health. Multivariate regression analyses are used to examine the characteristics associated with misreporting marriages and dates of marriage. Paired and unpaired statistical tests assess whether marriage indicators are affected by misreporting. Results indicate that a significant proportion of marriages are underreported and that misreporting is not random. Several individual, marriage, and survey-related characteristics are associated with underreporting marriages and misreporting marriage dates. I also find that misreporting leads to biased marriage indicators.Publication The Transition to Adulthood in the Developed Western World: a Focus on the Achievement of Economic Independence and on the Role of Family Background(2013-01-01) Sironi, MariaThe second half of the twentieth century has been characterized by substantial changes in demographic behaviors. Among these transformations also the process by which adolescents and teenagers transition to adulthood has changed greatly in many countries of the Western world. All the events of the transition to adulthood have been delayed and life course trajectories became more diverse. There are some aspects concerning the mentioned changes that have not been extensively studied in the literature. This dissertation is a collection of three papers that have the aim to investigate these neglected aspects concerning life course trajectories of young adults. In particular, the first two papers look at trends over time in the achievement of economic independence, a crucial event in the transition to adulthood that has not received enough attention so far. The first paper is a cross-national comparison describing the situation in six different developed societies. The second paper studies only the United States, going back to the 1970s and tracing changes over time until 2007. The third paper, instead, focuses on the role of parental social class in the transition to adulthood. The exact mechanisms by which socio-economic status affects the transition to economic self-sufficiency and family formation are largely unknown. A better understanding of these issues can highlight additional information to understand why and how the transition to adulthood has changed in the last five decades. Analyses were carried out using survey data from the Luxemburg Income Study (LIS), the National Longitudinal Surveys (NLS, NLSY79, NLSY97), and the Multipurpose ISTAT (FSS 2003). A first main finding of this study is that the transition to economic independence has been delayed together with all the other events of the transition to adulthood. This process has occurred in all developed Western countries even if with some differences. A second finding is that parental social class can explain some of the variation in life courses, and that a higher social class is associated with a postponement in the transition. Also the role of family background, however, differentiates based on welfare state regimes, institutions, and the strength of family ties.Publication Influences on Children's Human Capital in Rural Malawi(2013-01-01) Appiah-Yeboah, Shirley AfuaThe circumstances that characterize poor, rural communities in Malawi suggest that children's health-wealth gradient can vary from other settings. This dissertation begins with a description of the methods used to create a household wealth variable using assets data in the Malawi Longitudinal Study of Families and Health project. By using a fixed effects model to minimize omitted variable bias, I determine the influence of participating in a farm subsidy program on the levels of household wealth in 2004, 2006 and 2008. The results show that the program is positively associated with the wealth index score and this association is stronger when using lagged explanatory variables. This chapter demonstrates how asset data broadens the possibilities of wealth-poverty research that can be undertaken in poor settings. In the next chapter, I use the wealth index to identify a health-wealth gradient for children under 5 years, and I determine whether the gradient varies with age. I find that children in wealthier households have decreased risk of stunting but this is not significant until the oldest age groups (36-47 and 48-59 months). While there is no apparent health-wealth gradient across these ages, there is evidence of an emerging gradient as children get older. The final chapter explores the role of maternal social capital in children's schooling outcomes, using an index measure of women's membership in community groups and instrument variable analysis to address endogeneity concerns. I find that maternal social capital has a significant, positive association with primary school enrollment for younger children and primary school completion for older children. In contrast, maternal social capital has significant, negative association with school enrollment for older children. Maternal social capital is discussed within the context of government policies to improve enrollment and retention. Poor, rural children in Malawi face unique circumstances that have long-lasting implications. The findings across these chapters underscore the need for research that contextualizes and seeks to understand these specific challenges. If this can be achieved, Malawian children have a better chance in becoming healthier, productive adults.Publication Essays on the Spatial Clustering of Immigrants and Internal Migration within the United States(2012-01-01) Ruther, MatthewThe chapters in this dissertation each look at some aspect of immigration or internal migration in the United States, highlighting the spatial nature of population distribution and mobility. Chapters 1 and 2 focus on the effect of immigrant residential clustering on crime and Chapter 3 explores the internal migration behavior of Puerto Ricans. In the first chapter, we investigate the effect of immigrant concentration on patterns of homicide in Los Angeles County. We also suggest an alternative method by which to define immigrant neighborhoods. Our results indicate that immigrant concentration confers a protective effect against homicide mortality, an effect that remains after controlling for other neighborhood structural factors that are commonly associated with homicide. Controlling for the spatial dependence in homicides reduces the magnitude of the effect, but it remains significant. Chapter 2 examines how foreign born population concentration impacts homicide rates at the county level. This chapter utilizes a longitudinal study design to reveal how changes in the immigrant population in the county are associated with changes in the homicide rate. The analysis is carried out using a spatial panel regression model which allows for cross-effects between neighboring counties. The results show that increasing foreign born population concentration is associated with reductions in the homicide rate, a process observed most clearly in the South region of the United States. In Chapter 3 we explore the internal migration patterns of Puerto Ricans in the United States, comparing the migration behavior of individuals born in Puerto Rico to those born in the United States. Second and higher generation Puerto Ricans are more mobile than their first generation counterparts, likely an outcome of the younger age structure and greater human capital of this former group. Puerto Ricans born in the United States also appear to be less influenced by the presence of existing Puerto Rican communities when making migration decisions. Both mainland- and island-born Puerto Rican populations are spatially dispersing, with the dominant migration stream for both groups being between New York and Florida.Publication Essays on Gender and Health(2012-01-01) Medalia, CarlaThe relationship between gender and health is complex. Although women live longer than men in almost every country throughout the world, women also tend to be sicker than men. While biological sex differences likely contribute to sex gaps in health, cross-national, historical, and life course variation suggest that social factors also play a role. This dissertation is composed of three chapters which examine social explanations for gender gaps in mortality and morbidity. The first chapter looks at the relationship between gender equality in the public sphere, and sex gaps in life expectancy throughout the world. I find that influence of gender equality on the sex gap in life expectancy depends on the level of economic development. The second chapter takes an historical perspective to examine the trend in the sex gap in depression in the United States between 1971 and 2008. In examining this trend, I find that the sex gap in depression has decreased over the past forty years, due to a decrease in depression among women that is primarily attributable to an increase in women's labor force participation and attachment. In the third chapter, I examine the relationship between gender, aging, and depression using longitudinal data for the population over age fifty in the United States. In doing so, I find that age does not increase depression until age 75, after which point depression increases for both sexes, but particularly for men, leading to a reversal in the sex gap in depression at the end of the lifespan. Furthermore, while the majority of the age effect on depression is explained by social and health changes, I conclude that there is a net effect of age per se on depression after age 75.Publication The Relational Role Of Place In The Production Of Racial Stratification(2021-01-01) Graetz, NickIn this dissertation, I examine how we quantify the dynamic, cumulative effects of relational social exposures with longitudinal survey data. In Chapter 1, I demonstrate a new mediation framework for describing what are often conceptualized problematically as “neighborhood effects.” Findings from this study clarify the reciprocal, life-course process through which neighborhood is implicated in the early production of social inequality. In Chapter 2, I extend this mediation framework to respond to theoretical critiques of how variables for race are used in common regression frameworks in attempts to study structural racism. I demonstrate an alternative counterfactual approach to explain how multiple racialized systems dynamically shape health over time, examining racial inequities in cardio-metabolic risk. I decompose the observed disparity into three types of effects: a controlled direct effect (“unobserved racism”), proportions attributable to interaction (“racial discrimination”), and pure indirect effects (“emergent discrimination”). I discuss the limitations of counterfactual approaches while highlighting how they can be combined with critical theories to quantify how interlocking systems produce racial health inequities. In Chapter 3, I use this framework to examine the Black-white wealth gap in the United States. Descriptive and qualitative analyses have identified many mechanisms underlying wealth correlations across successive generations, but few studies have quantified the relative contributions of these interconnected and racialized systems of reproduction to the total gap we observe today. I define a wealth gap in 2015-17 between the grandchildren of those racialized as Black and the grandchildren of those racialized as white in 1968-70. I use a fully interacted counterfactual mediation framework to decompose this disparity into the historical, racialized contributions of 1) effects of home values in 1968-70 on home values in successive generations and 2) effects via educational attainment in successive generations. Findings from this study contribute to our understanding of the dynamic, racialized process of multigenerational place-based wealth accumulation and support the importance of historically contingent social policy centered on reparative justice.Publication Three Essays On Labor Market Incorporation And Remitting Behavior In Sub-Saharan Africa(2020-01-01) Souza, Emmanuel FrancisThis dissertation follows a three-chapter format, addressing migration-related issues in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The first and second chapters use Census data and logit models to examine labor market incorporation of African-born immigrants in South Africa, a country that has become a magnet for regional migration and a prime example of South-South migration. Chapter one examines a wide range of labor market outcomes for immigrant men relative to their internal migrant peers. It examines the extent to which prior models and arguments based on South-North migrants also apply to South-South flows. Results show considerable support for segmented assimilation perspectives. However, the existence of large informal sectors in the South African context is the central barrier to immigrants’ occupational and income attainment, a factor less relevant in the South-North context. In addition, better-resourced immigrant communities have better incorporation experiences than well-established communities. The second chapter investigates women’s labor market participation, considering women’s status, socio-cultural norms, and demographic trends in SSA. It explores the relative importance of human capital and family characteristics in explaining labor market disparities between immigrants and natives. Results underscore similar challenges to those experienced by immigrant men in South Africa. Comparatively, immigrants exhibit poor incorporation experiences than South African-born internal migrants. Family characteristics are the key factors explaining variations in immigrant women’s labor market decisions. In contrast, human capital factors are more salient for South African women, suggesting the importance of gender egalitarianism. Finally, the third chapter employs probit and Tobit models to examine household remittances in four SSA countries using World Bank data. It explores how family ties, migrant, and origin-household characteristics shape remitting behavior. Here, results are consistent with remitting patterns and motivations observed elsewhere. Altruism appears to be the primary motive behind remittances in SSA. However, the altruistic behavior is primarily driven by the obligation to remit rather than a selfless concern for the non-migrating household members as pure-altruism suggests. National origin variation in remitting behavior underscores the importance of access to international labor markets, gender dynamics, and origin countries’ level of development in shaping the pattern and use of remittances.Publication Health, Environment, And Inequality In India(2021-01-01) Gupta, AashishThis dissertation makes three scientific contributions to understand the ongoing epidemiological transition in India. The first chapter documents local externalities of solid fuel use for adult lung function. The use of solid fuels for cooking and heating is rooted in poverty and gender inequality within households. However, harms from solid fuel use are more widespread. In neighborhoods with high solid fuel use, the lungs of those who do not use solid fuels can be as obstructed as the lungs of those who use solid fuels. Because it contributes to both infectious disease among children and chronic diseases among adults, the use of solid fuels complicates the epidemiological transition in India. The second chapter observes that Indian infants face higher mortality risks in the summer, monsoon, and winter months compared to the spring months. Using birth history data, the chapter develops an innovative demographic approach which estimates and adjusts infant mortality by calendar month. The chapter highlights that Indian infants face multiple environmental threats that are less salient for a limited period within a year. It finds that although seasonal variation has declined, it remains a concern in rural areas and among more disadvantaged households. The last chapter provides the first estimates of life expectancy by social class in India for the period 1990-2016. It develops methods to directly estimate life tables from survey data. The chapter documents persistent and stark mortality disparities in a period of robust economic growth and changing disease profiles. It finds progress in reducing levels and differentials in child mortality. However, patterns in the working ages are concerning, with slower progress and little reduction in inequality. The three chapters make both substantive and methodological contributions to the study of health and mortality in low- and middle-income countries. They show that addressing social inequalities and environmental risks are essential for population health improvements in India.